I. In genetics experts and non-experts alike communicate in many ways. Simple
messages shared in passing or even formal reports all become important ways of
sharing important knowledge and developments in the field. As students become
more involved and more educated in the field, the forms of communication they
use and their roles in the communication cycle change. As a person enters the
field, they mainly communicate through informal channels, but as their knowledge
and involvement grows, their communication usually becomes more formal and
rather than simply being the recipient of information, they also become a
sender. Beginners in the field of gene therapy often find themselves the
receivers of any communication that goes on, mainly through informal channels at
first. Most people start out in general biology classes and then slowly work
toward more specialized classes, gaining knowledge about the short history and
past developments of gene therapy from their professors or even TAs. As the
classes become more specific, students begin to interact more through labs and
classroom discussions. Their interaction slowly changes from sitting in a
lecture to being able to carry on
conversations with others in their field.
II. Molecular genetics is the study of gene structure and function. Molecular geneticists are interested in the flow and regulation of genetic information between DNA, RNA, and protein molecules within cells. Molecular genetics began in 1941 with George Beadle and Edward Tatum's discovery that certain genes contribute to cellular chemistry in the fungus Neurospora crassa by coding for catalytic proteins called enzymes. Though initial experiments primarily involved phage infection of bacteria, the molecular genetics field now includes the nature, expression, replication, and regulation of genetic information in eukaryotes as well. Molecular geneticists utilize modern advances in DNA biotechnology to identify, isolate, sequence, clone, and manipulate genes. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), DNA and chromosome mapping, and DNA "fingerprinting" techniques are among the analytical methods used by molecular geneticists. A favorable gene identified in any source can be cloned in bacteria or viruses and subsequently inserted into many different species due to recombinant DNA technology. Considering that such a gene could produce insulin in a diabetic human or make the production of hybrid seed in a tomato plant possible, molecular genetics carries the potential for gene therapy in medicine and agriculture. Since the Roslin Institute in Scotland successfully cloned a sheep from the genetic material of an adult mammary cell in 1996, molecular geneticists have also come to recognize the potential use of cloned animals as models to study human disease and as a means to acquire therapeutic drugs.
IIIA. Psychology is a science that relies heavily on communication. Effective communication is essential for the success of any project. The first step toward generating research is finding a way to pay for it. Psychologists working at universities and independent laboratories perform the majority of research in the field. They need money to complete their research and experiments. Money for research can come from governmental agencies or from private organizations with an interest in psychology. Psychologists must find a way to get this money. This is why the grant proposal is one of the most important forms of communication in psychology. The grant proposal is an official solicitation of money. Funds are limited and many other researchers are after it. This means that the grant proposal must be a well-organized and formal document. Upon completing the research, another form of communication is needed.
IIIB. The discipline of Behavior Ecology studies behaviors that affect an organism's ability to survive and reproduce (Abedon 2001). Behavior Ecology is a subset of Ethology, the study of behaviors. While ethnologists focus on innate or not-learned behaviors, behavioral ecologists study both behavioral types (Abedon 2001). Behavioral ecologists try to understand the reasons for the behaviors. Behavioral ecologists have found that an elephant seal mates in order to produce offspring, and songbirds sing to attract a mate. Behavioral ecologists may specialize in a specific group of organisms: plants, fish, insects, birds, etc. The methods employed by a behavioral ecologist are generally observational (Bart et al 1998). Many sub fields of behavior ecology use manipulated laboratory and field experiments to reinforce observational data.
IV. The number of professional associations is not as diverse as the journals themselves but do provide a means of communication for those interested in semantics. The International Society for General Semantics resides as the main associations for members of the semantic world. This society promotes the study of general semantics with the use of articles, publications, and other educational instruments. They open membership to anyone interested in semantics: students, professors, researchers, libraries, and institutions. The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) has a specialized group for semantics called the Special Interest Group on Computational Semantics (SIGSEM). This group supports conferences and workshops about this field of study and promoting research and studies to both researchers and college students. The SIGSEM also "facilitate(s) the communication between researchers in computational semantics as well as the communication with educators in the field and with those interested in potential applications of research results," (ACL web page). Such support and promotion makes it possible for new researchers and interested students to learn more about this specialized area of linguistics, creating a doorway of opportunity for new scientists. Communication with semantics stretches across the pages of journals and societal newsletters to include workshops and conferences in the pursuit of broadening scientific minds on the subject of linguistics. Professional associations help support various hands-on workshops and conferences to enhance the knowledge of semantics such as the SIGSEM. Some specialized semantic departments at universities support such conferences advance their work and provide introductory research for their aspiring students.
V. Many marine mammal scientists are university professors. Interactions between professors, students, and colleagues are vital to the communication and contributions of marine mammal scientists. Marine mammalogists participate in workshops, academic presentations, and peer reviews of current research or potential publications. Such activities also help educate others about the value of marine mammal science and its potential political and economical impacts. Marine mammalogists publish in a myriad of biological or zoological journals such as Animal Behaviour, Journal of Mammalogy, Bioacoustics, and Molecular Biology and Evolution. However, several journals publish primarily aquatic and marine biology literature. Marine Mammal Science, Aquatic Mammals, Marine Pollution Bulletin, and Canadian Journal of Zoology primarily publish marine mammal science topics. Each journal provides its own publication guidelines. Scientific Style and Format and The Chicago Manual of Style serve as general publication guideline references. Marine mammal science literature includes research articles, reviews, notes, opinions, and letters. Marine mammal science societies and organizations provide lists of marine mammal science contacts. Marine mammalogists value scientific societies and organizations. Each marine mammal society or organization has an associated publication. For example, the Society for Marine Mammalogy (SMM) publishes Marine Mammal Science, while the European Association for Aquatic Mammals (EAAM) publishes Aquatic Mammals. Many organizations hold regular conferences or meetings devoted solely, or in part, to marine mammal science. At conferences such as the SMM's Biennial Conference of Marine Mammals, scientists, educators, and students have an opportunity to present and discuss current marine mammal research, needs, and issues. Disseminated marine mammal information leads to educated decisions on management and conservation recommendations and policies. Marine mammal science conferences also reveal fisheries' activities and interactions with marine mammals. This often has far-reaching economic, conservation, and stewardship implications.
VI A. Informal communication teaches the appropriate terminology and methodology in ethnobotany. Reading appropriate literature, attending conferences, lectures, and fieldwork achieve this. Conversations with peers and professors help keep a flow of knowledge and terminology too. Fieldwork teaches methodology for conducting ethnobotany. Living with the tribe and doing day-to-day activities provides a lot of insight into the tribe's beliefs and practices. Often ethnobotanists act as an apprentice to a shaman, or medicine man. Here ethnobotanists document the use of plants, collect specimens, preserve them, and study them for beneficial chemical constituents. Informal communication tends to be time consuming, but gives critical experience into the field.
VI B.The lines of communication among cell biologists are both long and short and can be classified into two categories: formal and informal. An informal line of communication serves as a method for enabling the cell biologist to remain current on issues in the field around him or her. Informal lines of communication occur due to the close-knit relationships a cell biologist develops with the individuals around him/her. The cell biologist discusses issues such as design of experiments, techniques, research methods, announcements of conferences, and requests from colleagues. An informal and short line of communication might be a quick Internet message from a colleague wishing to retrieve an opinion concerning his research or from a biotechnology company representative marketing the newest products in the field. A much longer informal line of communication is the weekly meeting of the cell biologist with his/her graduate student to discuss research progress or the monitoring of student's projects throughout the semester.